ORCID
- Nathan Clarke: 0000-0002-3595-3800
Abstract
With technology increasingly embedded in everyday life, the demand for secure and usable authentication methods has never been greater. Traditional password-based systems continue to dominate, despite well-known usability and security challenges. This paper explores the evolution of user authentication technologies, from secret knowledge and tokens to biometrics and emerging approaches such as Passkeys. It critically evaluates the extent to which usability has been achieved, identifying both successes—such as biometrics integrated into smartphones—and persistent issues, including inconsistent guidance, ecosystem dependence, and accessibility barriers. Drawing on academic and commercial developments, the discussion highlights the growing burden on users who must authenticate across multiple devices and services daily. Future directions including transparent, continuous, and user-choice-driven authentication are discussed as potential solutions to mitigate this burden. Ultimately, it argues that while progress has been made, current solutions remain fragmented and often exclude key user groups. A more inclusive, consistent, and user-centred approach is essential to ensure authentication systems are both secure and truly usable in practice.
DOI Link
Publication Date
2026-01-01
Publication Title
Computers and Security
Volume
162
ISSN
0167-4048
Acceptance Date
2025-12-29
Deposit Date
2026-03-04
Additional Links
Keywords
Authentication, Biometric, Passkeys, Passwords, Security awareness, security culture, Tokens
Creative Commons License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Recommended Citation
Clarke, N., & Furnell, S. (2026) 'Usable authentication: Are we there yet?', Computers and Security, 162. Available at: 10.1016/j.cose.2025.104823
