Abstract

Hikikomori - originally identified in Japan as a severe form of social withdrawal - has evolved into a global phenomenon mirroring broader transformations in labour, technology, and identity. Once deemed a culture-bound syndrome, it is increasingly understood as a “society-bound” expression of psychosocial strain, existential unease, and retreat from normative life scripts. This thesis advances understanding of hikikomori by developing and validating psychometric tools, identifying subtypes of withdrawal, and situating the phenomenon within wider socio-cultural, digital, and philosophical frameworks.Empirical chapters detail the development of two novel tools: the Hikikomori Risk Inventory-13 (HRI-13) and the expanded Hikikomori Syndrome Behaviour Scale (HSBS). The HRI-13 refined an existing Japanese-Italian measure for use in Western contexts, showing robust validity and factor structure. The HSBS expands the set of questions from six to twenty-one items, distinguishing between “push” (distress-driven) and “pull” (preference-driven) withdrawal. While clustering and latent profile analyses examined the possibility of distinct subtypes, the findings consistently supported a unidimensional model, suggesting that social withdrawal exists along a continuum primarily driven by psychological distress. Importantly, Self-Directed Solitude emerged as both a statistically and conceptually distinct construct, associated with more adaptive outcomes. This highlights the importance of distinguishing between maladaptive withdrawal rooted in distress and voluntary solitude pursued for personal well-being. Although push factors, particularly those related to distress, were most predictive of hikikomori risk, the additional subscales; Freeterdom (flexible, low-commitment employment lifestyle), Indoor Preference, and Self-Directed Solitude added valuable insight into the diverse motivations underlying social withdrawal.A multidisciplinary literature review reframes hikikomori through sociological, psychoanalytic, and existential lenses. It positions hikikomori, not only as a psychological condition but as a symptom of structural fragmentation. Concepts like cruel optimism, moral withdrawal, and psychic retreat articulate how withdrawal may function both as a symptom of distress and a form of existential protest - a symbolic refusal to participate in a world perceived as hollow and unfair. The broader literature also points to digital coping as an under-measured dimension of hikikomori risk. Constructs such as shame around digital dependency, perceived life stasis, and coping through online anonymity are not captured by existing measures, representing a meaningful gap for future scale development.Overall, this work supports the view of hikikomori as a society-bound syndrome, shaped by global precarity and techno-cultural shifts. While typological models were explored, the findings favour unidimensional approaches that better reflect the spectrum of social withdrawal. Findings indicate that that pull-oriented solitude can be adaptive and can be distinguished from distress-driven avoidance. Hikikomori emerges not just as a marker of individual pathology, but as a symptom of broader structural malaise - capturing the existential drift of a generation facing stalled transitions, fractured identities, and the search for meaning in a normless, digitally mediated world.

Awarding Institution(s)

University of Plymouth

Supervisor

Alison Bacon, Jon May, Steve Minton

Keywords

Hikikomori, Social Withdrawal, Digital Coping, Psychosocial Validation, Scale Development, Latent Profile Analysis

Document Type

Thesis

Publication Date

2026

Embargo Period

2026-05-06

Deposit Date

May 2026

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